i 
 

  

ENSIGN GLOBAL COLLEGE 

 

 

OCCUPATIONAL HAZARDS, SAFETY CULTURE AND BEHAVIOUR AMONG 

FISHERMEN IN ACCRA - GHANA 

 

 

DOUGLAS BOATENG 

227100228 

 

 

OCCUPATIONAL HAZARDS, SAFETY CULTURE AND BEHAVIOUR AMONG 

FISHERMEN IN ACCRA METROPOLITAN ASSEMBLY, GREATER ACCRA -

GHANA 

 

 

 

 

 

NOVEMBER 2023 



ii 
 

DECLARATION 

I hereby certify that except for references duly cited for other people’s work, this project 

submitted to the Department of Community Health, Ensign Global College, Kpong is the result 

of my investigation under the supervision of Dr Sandra Kushitor and has not been presented 

for any other degree elsewhere. 

 

 

Douglas Boateng (227100228)          …………………     ……………. 

(Student’s Name & ID)                          Signature        Date 

 

 

Certified by: 

Dr Sandra Boatemaa Kushitor              …………………              ……………….. 

(Supervisor’s Name)                         Signature                    Date 

 

 

Certified by: 

Dr Stephen Manortey                    …………………                     ……………….. 

(Head of Academics Program)             Signature                       Date 

 

 

 

  



iii 
 

 

DEDICATION 

I sincerely dedicate my study to my mother, who has supported me throughout this journey and 

served as my source of inspiration.  

To my Boss, Lecturers, classmates and Friends who gave me words of wisdom and motivation 

to complete this research.  

Finally, I thank the All-Almighty God for giving me a healthy life, for his strength, mental 

power, protection, and skills, and I dedicate this work to him. 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 



iv 
 

 

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT 

My heartfelt gratitude first goes to The Almighty God, who made this project possible. Also, a 

big thanks go to the faculty members and other staff of Ensign Global College, for all the 

support they gave throughout this journey. To my Supervisor, Dr. Sandra Boatemaa Kushitor. 

I am more than ever grateful to you for guidance and support through this work. I also thank 

my Mother Nana Serwaah Paafo I, Nana Takyi Akomea I, Dr Charles Dwamena and Dr 

Anthony Nsiah-Asare for sponsoring this course. I am very grateful to you all. Finally, my 

profound gratitude goes to Afia Maaboa Barnieh, Ann Johnson Addai, Bismark Somuah, 

Alfred Nyonyogbe, Grace Opoku, Juliana Obeng, David Arhinful, Emelia Duah Nyarkoah, 

Hannah Saah, Mavis Twumwaa Appiah and Ehoenam Ama Mawuenefia. Your words of 

encouragement have been able to bring me this far and I am so grateful. 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 



v 
 

 

ABBREVIATION/ACRONYMS 

OHS OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH AND SAFETY 

HSC HEALTH AND SAFETY COMMISSION 

ILO INTERNATIONAL SAFETY COMMISSION 

DEFENS DRUGS EXPOSURE FEEDBACK AND EDUCATION FOR NURSES’ 

STUDY 

AMA ACCRA METROPOLITAN ASSEMBLY 

MMDAs METROPOLITAN, MUNICIPAL AND DISTRICT ASSEMBLIES 

MCD METRO COORDINATING COUNCIL 

GNA GHANA NEWS AGENCY 

STMA SEKONDI TAKORADI METROPOLITAN ASSEMBLY AREA 

DFI DEPARTMENT OF FACTORIES INSPECTION 

PPE PERSONAL PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT 

SADC SOUTHERN AFRICAN DEVELOPMENT COMMUNITY 

FAO FOOD AND AGRICULTURAL ORGANIZATION 

NGO NON-GOVERNMENTAL ORGANIZATION 

PHT PATRIOTIC HEALTH TEAM 

 

 

 

 

 

 

  



vi 
 

 

ABSTRACT 

Introduction: The fishing industry is inherently risky, and understanding the specific hazards 

and the attitudes towards safety within this community is crucial for developing effective 

strategies to improve the well-being of fishermen. By examining the safety culture and 

behaviour of these fishermen, this study aims to shed light on the underlying factors that 

contribute to occupational hazards and identify potential areas for intervention. The findings 

of this research will not only contribute to the existing literature on occupational safety in the 

fishing industry but also provide valuable insights for policymakers, researchers, and 

stakeholders involved in promoting the well-being of fishermen in Jamestown, Accra, Ghana. 

Aim: The study’s aim is to investigate the occupational hazards, safety culture and behaviour 

of fishermen in Accra Metropolitan Assembly, Ghana. 

Methodology: The study utilized a cross-sectional survey approach to collect opinions from 

artisanal fishermen in the James Town fishing community, Accra Metropolitan Assembly, 

Ghana. The target population consisted of registered fishermen aged 30 to 50 years. The 

researcher employed a sampling technique by selecting the fishermen association, and within 

this association, a simple random sampling method was adopted. This approach, specifically 

using a table of random numbers, was chosen to ensure a fair representation of the target 

population. The sample for the study comprised of 200 respondents, determined through the 

application of the Yamen (1967) formula. Data was collected via questionnaires that included 

Likert scale responses, with strict measures taken to ensure confidentiality. Furthermore, the 

collected data was securely stored, and the analysis involved descriptive statistics using SPSS 

version 25. 

 



vii 
 

Result: The study found that physical, environmental, and psychological hazards are identified 

as key contributors to accidents among fishermen. Also, fishermen face significant risks, such 

as drowning, environmental hazards, and psychological stressors. 

Conclusion: In conclusion, the research findings offer valuable insights into the reasons and 

factors contributing to accidents at fishing sites, as well as the measures that can be taken to 

improve safety behaviour among fishermen. These findings also reveal that fishermen face 

significant hazards, particularly drowning, environmental hazards, and psychological hazards. 

The prevalence of drowning as a major concern highlights the necessity for targeted safety 

measures and interventions to address water-related accidents. Additionally, the presence of 

environmental hazards emphasizes the importance of implementing strategies to mitigate risks 

associated with the challenging and unpredictable work environment. Overall, these findings 

emphasize the need for proactive measures to ensure the safety and well-being of fishermen in 

their line of work. 

  



viii 
 

  TABLE OF CONTENTS 

CONTENTS               PAGES 

DECLARATION ..................................................................................................................... ii 

DEDICATION ........................................................................................................................ iii 

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ...................................................................................................... iv 

ABBREVIATION/ACRONYMS ........................................................................................... v 

ABSTRACT ............................................................................................................................. vi 

LIST OF TABLES ................................................................................................................... x 

LIST OF FIGURES ................................................................................................................ xi 

CHAPTER 1 ............................................................................................................................. 1 

1.0 INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................. 1 

1.1 Background of the Study ............................................................................................... 1 

1.2 Statement of the Problem .............................................................................................. 3 

1.3 Rationale of Study .......................................................................................................... 4 

1.4 Conceptual Framework ................................................................................................. 5 

1.5 Research Questions ........................................................................................................ 7 

1.6 General Objective ........................................................................................................... 8 

1.7 Specific Objectives.......................................................................................................... 8 

1.8 Scope of the Study .......................................................................................................... 9 

1.9 Profile of Study Area...................................................................................................... 9 

1.10 Organisation of the Study .......................................................................................... 10 

2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW ............................................................................................... 11 

2.1 Overview ....................................................................................................................... 11 

2.2: Conceptual Review...................................................................................................... 11 

2.2.1: The History of Occupational Health and Safety Policy .................................... 11 

2.2.2: The Concept of Occupational Health and Hazards .......................................... 12 

2.3 Theoretical Review ....................................................................................................... 31 

2.3.1: The Theory of Domino ......................................................................................... 31 

2.4: Empirical Review ........................................................................................................ 33 

2.5: Limitations and Gaps in the Literature .................................................................... 35 

2.6: Summary of the Review of Related Literature ........................................................ 37 

CHAPTER 3 ........................................................................................................................... 39 

METHODOLOGY ................................................................................................................ 39 

3.1 Research Methods and Design .................................................................................... 39 



ix 
 

3.2 Study Area .................................................................................................................... 39 

3.3 Data Collection Techniques and Tools ....................................................................... 40 

3.4 Study Population .......................................................................................................... 41 

3.5 Study Variables ............................................................................................................ 41 

3.6 Sampling ........................................................................................................................ 41 

3.7 Pre-testing ..................................................................................................................... 42 

3.8 Data Handling ............................................................................................................... 43 

3.9 Data Analysis ................................................................................................................ 43 

3.10 Ethical Consideration ................................................................................................ 43 

3.11 Assumptions ................................................................................................................ 43 

CHAPTER 4 ........................................................................................................................... 45 

4.0 RESULTS ......................................................................................................................... 45 

4.1 Demographic Characteristics of the Respondents .................................................... 45 

4.2 Nature of Injuries Fishermen Experience .................................................................. 47 

4.3 Reasons that Contribute to Accidents at Fishing Sites ............................................. 47 

4.4 Types of Hazards Fishermen Experience................................................................... 49 

4.5 Measures to Improve Safety Behaviour ..................................................................... 49 

CHAPTER 5 ........................................................................................................................... 51 

DISCUSSION ......................................................................................................................... 51 

5.1 Introduction .................................................................................................................. 51 

5.3 Types of Hazards Fishermen Experience................................................................... 52 

5.4 Reasons and Factors that Contribute to Accidents at Fishing Sites ........................ 54 

5.5 Measures to Improve Safety Behaviour ..................................................................... 55 

CHAPTER 6 ........................................................................................................................... 58 

CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS............................................................... 58 

6.1 Introduction .................................................................................................................. 58 

6.2 Key Findings ................................................................................................................. 58 

6.3 Conclusion ..................................................................................................................... 59 

6.4 Recommendations .......................................................................................................... 60 

6.5 Limitation of Study ...................................................................................................... 61 

REFERENCES ....................................................................................................................... 62 

  



x 
 

 

LIST OF TABLES 

Table 1: Demographic Characteristics of the Respondents .................................................... 45 

Table 2: Nature of Injuries Fishermen Experience ................................................................. 47 

Table 3: Reasons that Contribute to Accidents at Fishing Sites ............................................. 48 

Table 4: Types of Hazards Fishermen Experience ................. Error! Bookmark not defined. 

Table 5: Measures to Improve Safety Behaviour.................................................................... 50 

 

  



xi 
 

 

LIST OF FIGURES 

Figure 1: Conceptual framework for the study of OHS among fishermen ............................... 7 



1 
 

CHAPTER 1 

1.0 INTRODUCTION 

1.1 Background of the Study 

Occupational Health and Safety is a critical consideration in the fishing industry, as it poses 

various hazards and risks to the well-being of fishermen. The natural environment in 

Jamestown, Accra, Ghana provides a conducive habitat for diverse marine life (Berleant & 

Carlson, 2017). However, the occupational activities of fishermen can have detrimental effects 

on both the environment and human beings (Mariano & Rovere, 2017). The fishing industry’s 

activities use and emit into the environment several harmful chemical substances such as 

cyanide during their operations. The industry is no doubt a very crucial industry to the 

economic development and growth of every country.  

One of the top issues for the majority of organisations worldwide is safety habits. According 

to Neal, Gryphon, and Hart (2020), these safety behaviours can be categorised into two groups: 

safety participation behaviour and safety-compliant behaviour. While Safety-compliant 

behaviours can be defined as the essential safety actions that employees must perform to 

guarantee workplace safety. Safety participation conduct can be understood as behaviours that 

may not directly contribute to workplace safety but help establish a working environment that 

supports safety (Neal, Gryphon, & Hart, 2020). 

The risk of occupational illnesses and accidents, as well as workplace hazards and safety 

concerns, exists in the well-known sector of fishing. Fishermen may be vulnerable to 

catastrophic injuries and occupational risks due to the type of activity, which has a substantial 

influence on public health. Nearly 2.78 million fatalities globally are due to occupational 

wellness concerns. Up to 50% of the workforce in underdeveloped nations is at risk for health 

problems. The International Labour Organisation (ILO) reports that the fishing industry has 



2 
 

one of the highest worker mortality rates due to its vulnerability, and that when a death happens 

at sea, there is typically no access to emergency care. 

According to Mansi et al, (2019), The fishing business is said to be one of the most dangerous 

industries with around 120 million accidents and 200 000 fatalities annually at a global level 

due to the numerous dangers and health risks documented from the ancient occupation. 

Olapade et al. (2021) stated that studies have shown that industrialised nations frequently have 

fatality rates above 100 per 100,000 active fishermen when accounting for incidents involving 

fisheries. According to Udolisa, Akinyemi, and Olaoye (2013), Arguably the riskiest 

occupation in the world, fishing is one of the oldest. 

In the words of Udolisa, Akinyemi, and Olaoye (2018), among the oldest and possibly riskiest 

vocations in the world is fishing. Employees, workers, governments, and the general public 

have all expressed a great deal of worry over the years about the protection of workers against 

work-related illnesses and accidents (Monney, Dwumfour-Asare, Owusu-Mensah, & 

Amankwah-Kuffour, 2020). This is due to the fact that a safe workplace not only encourages 

employees' physical, mental, and social well-being, but also reduces costs associated with 

medical expenses, compensation, lost productivity, experienced staff replacement, and other 

expenses resulting from workplace accidents (Hughes & Phil, 2021).  Fishing has always been 

and continues to be a risky occupation; according to all estimates, there is a high risk of risk-

taking, injuries, and fatalities associated with fishing (Abraham, 2018). This poses a severe 

problem for the commercial fishing industry as well as artisanal fishing. 

Nevertheless, Ghanaian fisherman continue to experience issues with maritime safety, which 

is a significant burden for both them and the nation as a whole. Fishermen and regulatory 

organisations like fisheries agencies in underdeveloped nations like Ghana's output is impacted 

by their lack of attention to safety behaviours and safety culture (Aggrey-Fynn & Sackey-

Mensah, 2020). In the fishing sector, safety and a good working environment at sea are crucial. 



3 
 

This study was therefore necessary. The purpose of the study is to look into the safety practises, 

occupational risks, and behaviour of fisherman in Ghana's Accra Metropolitan Assembly. 

 

1.2 Statement of the Problem 

The role of a fisherman is time and energy consuming and very essential to the economic 

growth of a country. Their place of work could make them uncomfortable and inconducive at 

many times due to congested work areas.  They need to stay on the ship for prolonged sea 

voyages. They also have to cooperate with their crew due to the nature of the work even if they 

have a strained relationship, which makes a fisherman's task more challenging (El-Saadawy, 

2014). Some variables that may compromise worker safety in this sector are remote locations, 

extended workdays, and inadequate rest periods. 

Additionally, they have significant demands at work, which might interfere with regular family 

life. incidents similar to the MV Comforter II disaster, which occurred on Friday, May 6, 2022, 

and resulted in the deaths of 11 persons, including the ship's captain, have been attributed to 

the widespread lack of safety among most fishing vessels (Daily Graphic 2022). These factors 

could make fisherman more susceptible to experiencing stress-related symptoms (Jeebhay 

2014). 

Parallel to this, a fishing boat's deck in Ghana has a cramped workspace that is overrun with 

fishing equipment, offering insufficient safety features for the fishermen. An estimated 2 

million workers per year pass away from accidents and illnesses brought on by their 

professions. Additionally, according to estimates from the International Labour Organisation 

(ILO), At least 335 000 people are fatally injured in industrial accidents each year, which total 

270 million. 

 



4 
 

Despite these developments in Ghana, concerns about workplace health and safety have gotten 

barely any attention (Asumeng, Asamani, Afful, & Agyemang, 2020). A few studies conducted 

in the formal sector have focused on the quality of work life and safety concerns in the banking 

industry (Asumeng, Coleman, & Dadzie, 2020) and the mining sector (Froko, Asumeng, & 

Nyarko, 2021). Other studies have examined occupational safety practices in various sectors 

of the informal industry, including spray-painting, small-scale sawmilling, and auto repair 

companies (Monney et al., 2020). However, there is a noticeable gap in research regarding 

fishing practises and safety issues in Ghana. This is particularly concerning given the 

prevalence of illegal, unreported, and unregulated fishing practices in Ghana's coastal waters, 

which not only pose a significant threat to the health and safety of fishermen but also result in 

substantial economic losses for coastal communities and the nation as a whole. Therefore, it is 

crucial to investigate the safety practices and challenges faced by fishermen in order to protect 

their well-being and livelihoods and promote sustainable fishing practices. 

 

1.3 Rationale of Study 

The essence, importance, use, and vast and vital role of the fishing industry play in our societies 

and around the world today, justifies studies into any aspects of the industry’s operations. 

Fishing industry products play a significant part in people's lives as a source of protein for our 

diets and as a raw material for several consumer goods. Nonetheless, the fishing industry poses 

significant occupational hazards, safety culture and behaviour.  

Considering these dangers and the health hazards the fishing industry activities pose to 

mankind and the environment; a study that seeks to unearth the occupational hazards, safety 

culture and behaviour associated with the fishing industry business, as well as the identification 

of occupational health hazards that face this noble industry; as well as factors that may mitigate 



5 
 

some of these safety shortfalls in the fishing industry, is undoubtedly a good piece of work that 

will be most vital to serving societal interest.  

The importance of occupational hazards, safety culture and behaviour in the fishing industry 

in Ghana are pivotal to the evolution of the informal business and economic expansion in 

Ghana. The situations surrounding occupational hazards, safety culture and behaviour in the 

fishing industry in Ghana are subjects of extensive research in both developed and developing 

nations. However, In Ghana's case, policies have been less successful. Therefore, the current 

study aims to make an empirical contribution to previous research on the subject with a focus 

on Ghana.  Policymakers, stakeholders from the public and private sectors, and other industry-

related development organisations will find value in the study's conclusions. 

More creative approaches to improving the industry can be adopted by public institutions like 

the Ministry of Fisheries and Aquaculture, the Ministry of Trade and Industry, businesses, 

people, and non-governmental organisations engaged in the sector.  The current study will add 

to the literature and provoke further research in this area. Lastly, this research will act as a 

roadmap. to researchers and fishermen in Accra Metropolitan Assembly. 

In this sense, the study will utilise the following objective; Examine the causes of incidents at 

fishing locations in the Accra Metropolitan Assembly, assess the types of hazards fishermen 

experience at locations for fishing in Accra Metropolitan Assembly, assess the nature of 

injuries fishermen experience at fishing sites in Accra Metropolitan Assembly, identify the 

measures to improve the fishermen's safety practises in the fishing business in Accra 

Metropolitan Assembly. 

 

1.4 Conceptual Framework 

The conceptual framework of the Drug Exposure Feedback and Education for Nurses Study 

(DEFENS) study was altered to include factors pertinent to the current investigation. The 



6 
 

orientation and When responders were hired for an apprenticeship, they were given instruction 

on workplace safety. constitute the educational intervention in the modified framework, and 

the WTP for occupational health and safety (OHS) services and safety practises constitutes the 

outcome of interests.  

In the conceptual framework employed for the current study, personal factors include age, 

education level, employment status, income, membership in associations, and experience; in 

the DEFENS study framework, personal factors include certification, experience, and 

education level. The workload, practise setting, and safety planning from Friese et al. (2015)'s 

first framework have been replaced by variables under organisational aspects in the framework 

for the current study. 

  



7 
 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Figure 1: Conceptual framework for the study of Occupational Health and Safety among 

fishermen 

Source: Friese et al. (2015), adapted from the DEFENS Study Conceptual Framework. 

 

1.5 Research Questions 

The study was guided by the following research questions.: 

Personal Factors 

Experience 

Education 

Occupational status 

Income  

Type of work 

Age 

Membership of labour 

association 

Awareness 

Awareness of hazards 

Awareness of what leads to 

injuries 

Organisational Factors 

Safety as priority 

Safety culture 

Outcome 

Willingness to adapt to 

OHS practices 

Using PPE  

Actions To guarantee 

security 

gathering to talk about 

worker safety 

Regular examination of 

equipment 

Educational 

Module 

Orientation of OHS 

Practices 

Perceived Risk 

Risky job  

Safety of workplace 



8 
 

1. What factors contribute to fishing accidents at fishing sites in Accra Metropolitan 

Assembly? 

2. What are the types of hazards fishermen experience at fishing sites in the Accra 

Metropolitan Assembly? 

3. What is the nature of injuries fishermen experience at fishing sites in Accra 

Metropolitan Assembly? 

4. What are the measures to improve the fishermen's safety practises in the fishing 

business in the Accra Metropolitan Assembly? 

 

1.6 General Objective 

The main objective of the study will be to investigate the occupational hazards, safety culture 

and behaviour of fishermen in Accra Metropolitan Assembly, Ghana.  

 

1.7 Specific Objectives 

Specifically, this research aimed to: 

1. Investigate the factors that contribute to accidents at fishing sites in Accra 

Metropolitan Assembly. 

2. Assess the types of hazards fishermen experience at fishing sites in Accra 

Metropolitan Assembly. 

3. Assess the nature of injuries fishermen experienced at fishing sites in Accra 

Metropolitan Assembly. 

4. Identify the measures to improve the fishermen's safety practises in the fishing 

business in Accra Metropolitan Assembly. 

 

 



9 
 

1.8 Scope of the Study 

The study is delimited to focus on investigating the occupational hazards, fishermen's safety 

culture and behaviour. The study considered the Accra Metropolitan Assembly as the 

geographical scope of the study but limited its respondents to fishermen in Jamestown. The 

Fishermen Association plays a crucial role in representing the interests of local fishermen and 

promoting sustainable fishing practices. This collective body serves as a platform for fishermen 

to voice their concerns, share knowledge and collaborate on initiatives that benefit both their 

livelihood and the marine ecosystem. Through the association, fishermen can advocate for 

safety measures, pricing, access to resources and government policies that support responsible 

fishing methods. 

However, the fishermen association faces several challenges within their area. Overfishing due 

to increasing demands coupled with illegal, unreported, and unregulated fishing practices. 

Climate change also impacts the fishing industry, causing unpredictable weather patterns and 

disrupting traditional fishing seasons. Pollution, often stemming from improper waste disposal 

and industrial activities, further destroys aquatic habitats. 

 

1.9 Profile of Study Area 

One of Ghana's two hundred and sixty-one (261) Metropolitan, Municipal, and District 

Assemblies (MMDAs) is the Accra Metropolitan Assembly (AMA), one of twenty-nine (29) 

MMDAs in the Greater Accra Region. Despite being founded in 1898, it has undergone 

numerous names, size, and Sub-Meter changes. The legislative basis was the Local 

Government Act, 1993 (Act 462), which is currently reformed as the Local Governance Act, 

2016 (ACT 936), and was made possible by Legislative Instrument (L.I) 2034 for Ghana's 

return to constitutional governance in 1993. 

 



10 
 

Pursuant to the 2010 Population and Housing Census, the Metropolis had a total population of 

1,665,086 people, with females forming up 51.9 percent and males accounting for 48.1 percent. 

The population of Accra is projected to be 2,036,889 in 2018 using the Greater Accra 

Population Growth Rate of 3.1%. More than 2 million individuals commute to Accra every day 

for a variety of socioeconomic activities. As a result, it is believed that Accra has a daily 

population of roughly 4 million, which includes both locals and tourists.  

 

1.10 Organisation of the Study 

Six chapters made up the organisation of the study. The backdrop of the study, the explanation 

of the problem, the justification for the investigation, the conceptual framework, the research 

questions, the general and particular objectives, the profile of the study area, the scope of the 

study, and the organisation of the study were all covered in Chapter One's general introduction. 

Chapter Two covered a review of the literature, which included a theoretical analysis, the 

conceptual framework, and the empirical foundation of the study. The methodology 

components, including research methodologies and design, data collection instruments and 

techniques, study population, study variables, sampling, pre-testing, data handling, and data 

analysis, as well as ethical considerations, study limitations, and assumptions, were covered in 

Chapter 3. The outcomes are in Chapter 4. While Chapter Six covered the results and 

recommendations, Chapter Five offers debates. 

  



11 
 

CHAPTER 2 

2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW 

2.1 Overview 

This chapter reviewed literature related to the topic under study as documented by authorities, 

educationists, and researchers. The conceptual review, the theoretical review, and the empirical 

review were the three categories used to group the literature review.  

 

2.2: Conceptual Review 

2.2.1: The History of Occupational Health and Safety Policy  

As long as there have been structured workplaces, there has been a need for the study of 

occupational safety and health. For instance, Caesar (100–40 BC) reportedly had an official in 

charge of the safety of his armies, while Hippocrates (460–377 BC) wrote about the detrimental 

consequences of a terrible workplace on slaves (Weaver, 1980). This section recounts the 

development of numerous workplace safety interventions. The father of occupational safety 

and health, Bernadino Ramazzini (1633–1714), as well wrote on the safety precautions of 

fishing and glass working, painting, grinding, and weaving in the middle of the Middle Ages.  

 

George Bauer (1492-1555) wrote several books on mining/metallurgy describing several 

innovative approaches for improving ventilation for workers in mining shafts (Raouf & 

Dhillon, 1994). Ramazzini (1713) was the first to record the detrimental effects of work 

conditions on workers' health and examined the death and injury rates of numerous occupations 

in De Morbis Artificum, or the Disease of Employees. Ramazzini reviewed and offered 

numerous preventive techniques for decreasing occupational disease and injury in recognition 

of the social significance of the advancement and economic growth of these occupations (Raouf 

& Dhillon, 1994). These early safety engineers undoubtedly created the groundwork for 



12 
 

modern methods to lower occupational disease and injury, even though they did not concentrate 

their efforts on executing intervention procedures in the workplace.  

Employers accepted workplace accidents and fatalities as a normal part of working life without 

considering their impact on the economy as the era of the machine age began with James Watt 

and Eli Whitney in the late 1700s. Workers were viewed as plentiful volunteers who could be 

easily replaced (Leigh, 2018). Individuals risked disease, dismemberment, and mortality for 

employment and a way to feed their families despite the appalling working conditions in the 

early factories, where two-thirds of the workers were women and children who worked 12-

hour days.  

Even if a worker became sick or hurt, they would rarely disclose it because serious or persistent 

illnesses were grounds for firing (Heinrich, 2019). A thorough review of the history of 

workplace safety and health would go beyond the scope of this study because it is so large and 

varied. As a result, the main factors (such as the government, insurance, engineering, and 

psychology) and related legislation that have influenced occupational safety and health 

intervention research will be the emphasis of this section of the literature review. 

 

2.2.2: The Concept of Occupational Health and Hazards   

More focus is placed on fishing industry revenues in the southern and coastal parts of Ghana 

(Oppong, 2018). The industry's potential risks to the environment and human safety, as well as 

Ghana's readiness to handle them, are hardly ever discussed. Moreover, a few of the major 

operational risks in the business has been identified as worker safety (Powell, 2014). Powell 

(2014) asserts that the industry faces considerable risk in preventing serious accidents and that 

industrial organizations must comprehend the concept and evolution of various risks to one's 

health during work. 

 



13 
 

The issue of job-related health and hazards has been described by (Oppong 2018) to include 

work-related accidents (Valentic et al, 2015) as occupational injuries and diseases among 

workers. Comparable to this, (Epstein & Selber, 2019) found several effects on the 

environment linked to the various technical activities of the fishing industry's entire lifecycle 

as components of occupational health hazards in the fishing industry.  

 

According to the researchers, the activities and operations of the fishing industry led to habitat 

disruption, disturbance of aquatic ecosystems, environmental deterioration, and oil spills. For 

example, in October 1998, a pipeline in the town of Warri in the Nigerian Delta ruptured and 

caught fire, killing over 700 people (Epstein & Selber, 2019). The issue of fishing industry 

injuries in Ghana and the subsequent detrimental impact on the property and life of the affected 

persons, as well as on the Ghanaian economy in general (GNA, 2019), has suddenly brought 

to the fore the importance and practice of occupational health and safety in the industry in the 

country (Achaw & Boateng, 2017).  

A healthy work environment is one in which employers and employees take into consideration 

the following based on identified needs in order to apply a continuous improvement approach 

to safeguard and promote employee health, safety, and well-being as well as the sustainability 

of the workplace, according to the World Health Organization (2019):  

i. issues with health and safety in the actual workplace;  

ii. concerns of health, safety, and well-being in the psychosocial workplace, including 

work organization and culture of the organization;  

iii. workplace personal health resources; and 

iv. ways to become involved in the community to promote the well-being of the workforce, 

their families, and other community members.  

 



14 
 

The World Health Organization (2019) maintains that since the industry lacks the requisite 

technological, administrative, and legislative safeguards for health and safety at work, 

increasing the danger of exposure, particularly more occupational injuries and diseases, 

employees are constantly subjected to unfavorable working conditions, including inadequate 

workspaces, outdated equipment, and subpar sanitation facilities, which negatively 

impact their overall well-being, health, and standard of living.  

Well, it is commonly known that workplace dangers and dangers have a negative impact on 

employees' wellness, productivity levels, and the country as a whole. As a result, it can be 

challenging to quantify the various effects that occupational health risks can have. Concerning 

the vocation diseases and injuries indicated according to official data, particularly those from 

the World Bank and the ILO, some estimates have been made. However, many diseases and 

injuries brought on by workplace hazards go unreported (Joubert, 2018).  

Several nations have seen a transition from the risks associated with labour in the 

manufacturing industries vs those in the fishing, farming, mining, and other primary sectors as 

a result of changes in occupational distribution with development (Debraj,1998). Reviewing 

the available studies on the scope and character of workplace accidents and illnesses is vital 

when considering the risky working conditions in the fishing industry.  

While analyzing the performance of the various fishing industry segments, Manning (2016) 

paid little regard for OHS-related concerns.  However, she pointed out that The results of the 

research indicated very inadequate workplace health and safety. Health and safety in Kenya's 

informal economy were also a major concern for Karanja, Muchiri, and Muraka (2013). 100 

employees from each of the four cities of Mombasa, Nairobi, Kisumu, and Nakuru were 

surveyed.  

 



15 
 

The main hazards at the oil refinery production identified by Achew & Boateng, (2017) were 

four types of occupational injuries which included: physical, respiratory, musculoskeletal and 

eye and ear injuries included. Additionally, it includes Physical risks include noise, burns, etc.; 

biological risks include parasite infestations and malaria; mechanical risks include cuts and 

amputations; chemical risks include paint exposure; and psychological risks include excessive 

work hours and lack of sleep. According to the study, 75% of participants experienced loud 

noises, 72% had injuries, 60% faced psychological risks, and 90% encountered chemical 

threats. 

A further finding from the survey was: 

i. due to an excess of both people as well as products in the workplaces, several workers 

experienced repeated exposures to various hazards, specifically in cluster zones;  

ii. there was frequently a lack of clothes and personal protective equipment;  

iii. the employees' posture at work caused them stress;  

iv. there was a lot of noise that was much louder than what was recommended;  

v. the workplaces lacked welfare services and facilities; 

vi. the absence of firefighting equipment suggested that there were many fire outbreaks.  

 

Oppong (2018) concentrated more intently on OHS issues affecting workers in key industries 

who are employed in the informal sector. He gave close attention to the industries of textiles, 

metal fabrication, vehicle repairs, and panel beating. Due to the easily ignitable materials used 

in the textile industry, his analysis showed the existence of a significant a fire risk for those 

who work in textiles. It further mentioned that metal employees are exposed to heated metal 

handles, adverse weather, welding sparks, gases, as well as welding arcs while performing their 

jobs. He revealed that in the oil refinery company; the operational refinery section is more 

prone to hazards due to the presence of various chemicals and substances. He pointed out the 



16 
 

fact that the issue is added to exacerbated by an absence of firefighting tools and the absence 

of personal safety gear. In their explanation of inherent hazard complexities, they revealed that 

musculoskeletal occupational injuries are associated with inherent risk levels (Edjekumhene, 

Atta-Owusu & Ampong, 2017).  

The health and safety conditions in this sector were also disclosed by a study done by Ametepeh 

(2016) on the unofficial services industry in the territory of the Sekondi Takoradi Metropolitan 

Assembly (STMA). The study specifically examined porters, drivers, beauticians, and 

mechanics. Following is a discussion of the study's key findings. The survey demonstrated that 

men predominate in STMA's informal service sector. Particularly, all of the drivers, 96% of 

the technicians, and 70% of the porters were men.  

Just 5% of beauticians were men. Workers as young as 17 and as old as 73 were engaged in 

the sector. However, the majority of respondents (43.3%) were within the 30-to-49 age range. 

Workers as young as 17 and as old as 73 were engaged in the sector. However, the majority of 

respondents (43.3%) were within the 30-to-49 age range. Although most respondents had at 

least a basic level of education and 13.5% of the respondents had never attended school, it was 

realized that education was not a requirement in the industry.  

 

According to the study, there were differences across the 29 different employment groups 

within the unofficial service industries that were assessed in terms of the major occupational 

health and safety hazards that affected STMA workers. The study found that beauticians were 

the ones most at risk from chemical dangers. Even though almost all of the raw materials 

beauticians employed are chemicals., the majority (62%) of them don't check the labelling on 

substances prior to using them as a result of their low educational levels. 42 % of mechanics 

ignore the warning labels on the chemicals they employ, even though a considerable majority 

of them (86 per cent) are aware that they are harmful.  



17 
 

Their working postures had an impact on almost all workers across all job categories. All 

workers have waist, knee, foot, and general body pain as a result of the standing, bending, as 

well as seating positions used while working. The survey also showed that OHS institutions in 

the nation lack resources and have a limited capacity to provide services. For example, there 

are just five in the Department of Factories Inspectorate (DFI). offices spread throughout just 

five areas. The Takoradi office has no vehicles, compared to the national office's one vehicle 

for inspection. Just formal sector organizations and other corporate private entities were subject 

to inspections and oversight.  

Kadafa and Ayuba, (2015), opined that occupational hazards in the oil refinery and storage 

companies affect several employees including managers and supervisors, technical and 

machine operators, and clerical and administrative staff. According to the International Labour 

Organization, there are two million work-related fatalities and 270 million occupational 

accidents annually (Takala, 2017). Julie (2018) opined that observation of safety protocols at 

the mining site is the best way to prevent accidents and fatalities. The highest prevalence of 

occupational injuries per worker appears to be in Sub-Saharan Africa, Afterward, Asia. 

 

There is widespread speculation the elevated numbers can be somewhat accounted for by the 

recent transfer of risky industries like mining, logging, and agriculture focused on exports from 

industrialized to underdeveloped nations where there are fewer materials to protect employees 

or where, in certain instances, employers may be excluded from labour laws (Barten, Fustukian 

& Haan, 2016). However, owing to a variety of shortcomings in the methods used to collect 

national OHS data, it is unknown how widespread the issue of job-related disease and injuries 

is in developing countries, particularly in relation to informal work. 

 



18 
 

Achew & Boateng, (2017) asserted that occupational hazards particularly caused by oil spills 

in the industry end up affecting humans and the community/societies in which they operate. 

The International Labor Organization (ILO) releases global accident rates, however, these are 

derived from data presented by the participant nations, who's reporting and recording systems 

differ greatly perhaps even don't exist, and which frequently deliberately Leave out the 

informal economy. Low reporting of injuries is common in developing nations, but it's even 

more prevalent and a global issue when it comes to occupational illnesses (Takala, 2017).  

 

Oppong (2018), indicates that, at the construction site, the frequent use of PPEs must be made 

mandatory to reduce the risk of injuries and accidents. He continued by saying that true 

occupational disease rates are probably underestimated by stated disease rates in Southern 

African Development Community (SADC) nations. OHS is now given a low priority in both 

national government policies and development discussions due to the severe absence of large-

scale, accurate data on OHS dangers in developing nations, particularly for informal 

employees.  

It is crucial to move on to investigating the broad and sectoral perspective in which those 

employees’ function, including the oversight and encouraging organisations that influence their 

means of subsistence and their eligibility for social and labour protection, to consider the 

potential for providing "decent work" to all employees, such as those employed in Cape Coast's 

informal manufacturing sector.  

 

2.2.3 Concept of Occupational Health in Fishing Industry 

The well-known industry of fishing includes some risks for Occupational diseases and injuries 

in addition to for workplace dangers and safety difficulties. Fishermen may be susceptible to 

serious injuries and occupational risks depending on the type of activity, which has a substantial 



19 
 

influence on public health. Nearly 2.78 million fatalities globally are due to occupational health 

concerns. Between 20% and 50% of the workforce in developing countries faces health 

concerns.  

Due to its vulnerability, the fishing industry has one of the highest workplace mortality rates, 

according to the International Labour Organisation (ILO), and when a death happens at sea, 

there is typically no access to emergency care, according to Mansi et al. (2019). The fishing 

business is reportedly one of the most dangerous industries with around 120 million accidents 

and 200 000 fatalities annually at the global level, according to Olapade et al (2021), due to the 

multiple hazards and health concerns recorded from the ancient occupation. 

 

In line with reports, industrialised nations frequently have fatality rates over 100 per 100,000 

active fishermen when accounting for incidents involving fisheries, according to FAO (2021). 

At the 96th International Labour Conference of the ILO in 2007, the Fishing Convention was 

adopted after extensive preparation. The convention specifies that fishers have acceptable 

working circumstances connected to fundamental criteria, such as work health & safety 

protection, health care, and social security, onboard fishing vessels. The Convention becomes 

effective on November 16, 2017. States, including Senegal, the only neighbour of the Gambia, 

have ratified the accord as of 23 March 2020, as reported by Garrone et al. (2015). In general, 

according to FAO (2021), fisheries are crucial to achieving SDGs 1, 2, and 3 of the United 

Nations Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), which are to reduce poverty, end hunger, and 

ensure healthy lives. This is because fish is a source of food and provides the body with 

essential nutrients for growth.  

 The International Maritime Organisation (IMO), the Food and Agricultural Organisation 

(FAO), and the International Labour Organisation (ILO) have all made reporting fishing 

accidents and fatalities a priority during the past 40 years, according to WHO (2016). However, 



20 
 

many nations still don't have a reliable method for reporting, analysing injuries, and fatalities. 

More than 15 million people are working on board vessels, according to FAO (2021), which 

has updated its global estimate for the number of fisheries-related fatalities in 2019 to 32 000 

each year. Between 2000 and 2016, there were an estimated 40 million fishing-related deaths 

worldwide; this served as the inspiration for the FAO (2021) amendment. 

 

2.2.4 Concept of Safety Behaviour and Safety Culture 

Eklöf and Toèrner (2012) state that attempting to raise risk awareness while encouraging safety 

conduct is a popular tactic. One issue with this is that such attempts might fail if current activity 

is more or less necessary, as it often is in the fishing industry, or if the subjective benefit of the 

dangerous behaviour outweighs the hazards. 

Safety culture is "the product of the individual and group values, attitudes, competencies, and 

patterns of behaviour that determine commitment to, and the style and proficiency of, an 

organization's health and safety programme," according to the UK Health and Safety 

Commission (HSC; 2013, p. 4). According to Turner, Pidgeonn, Blockledy, and Tom (2019), 

this definition is reaffirmed. is the body of ideas, rules, attitudes, roles, and social as well as 

technical practises aimed at reducing the exposure of workers, management, clients, and the 

general public to conditions deemed hazardous or harmful. In conclusion, safety culture is all 

about promoting safety via prevention as a fundamental business value, organisational value, 

or industrial value. It is concerned with the dedication of both individuals and groups to an 

organization's health and safety programmes by both individual workers and management  

 

The successful implementation and maintenance of a safety culture depends on three factors: 

expertise, dedication, and understanding of occupational safety issues (Millward, 2015). 

According to Redmill (2017), safety culture in the context of artisanal fishing refers to the 



21 
 

degree to which fishermen, including their supervisors and team leaders, are knowledgeable, 

aware of, and devoted to their safety programmes to promote safety and prevent maritime 

accidents. According to studies, organisations with poor safety cultures have higher accident 

rates than those with strong safety cultures, which have lower accident rates. Additionally, 

according to Clarke (2018), safety culture is viewed as a leading indication of safety conduct. 

 

2.2.5 Nature of Injuries and Hazards Associated with the Fishing Industry 

Eye swelling, sunburns, falls, mechanical and electrical accidents, among other common risks 

and injuries, are frequently recorded in the fishing sector. According to Olapade et al. (2021), 

without planned and successful interventions, noise-induced loss, allergic respiratory diseases, 

and work-related stress concerns are projected to significantly worsen with time. Studies 

conducted in Africa have documented injuries and risks such as wounds from sharp blades, eye 

redness, and pricks from fish spines.  

In accordance with Ngaruiya et al. (2019), there have been cases of eye diseases among 

fishermen in Ghana as a result of smoke and sunlight. A different study conducted in India 

found that fishermen there do not seek medical attention and are unwilling to recover from 

their wounds. According to Neethiselvan et al. (2021), some of the upsetting elements for 

fishermen are exposure to the cold, wind, rough seas, significant physical effort, frequent 

injuries sustained while working, noise, poor hygiene, unexpected threats, equipment failure, 

psychological stress, and economic stress pressure.  

Alabi et al. (2015), Major physical risks in handling facilities include trips, falls, and exposure 

to loud noises, whereas common chemical risks include chemical accidents, solvents, vapours, 

fumes, and unburned hydrocarbons. Biological hazards are brought on by parasite infestation, 

germs, viruses, or injuries from animals like shark or crocodile attacks, while occupational 

dangers are brought on by mechanical elements that affect the musculoskeletal system. 



22 
 

 

Alabi et al. (2015), Fishing-related fatalities are a persistent, unresolved issue. According to 

Julius et al. (2021) and Jensen (2016), fish processing is a range of activities that cover the full 

handling of fish and fish products, from harvesting to client delivery. 

Artisanal fishing is a sort of fishery system with an open beach that uses very simple fishing 

techniques including the use of dug-out boats or canoes that are frequently powered by 

outboard motors, in contrast to heavy machinery and highly mechanised fishing/large vessel 

fisheries. Nearly all 300 landing locations in 200 fishing settlements along Ghana's coast are 

accessed by canoes. Since it only uses local resources, it is typically regarded as small-scale 

fishing (Mensah, 2012). 

The 11,219 traditional canoes that make up the artisanal fishing sub-sector use a variety of 

fishing gear, such as purse seines, beach seines, drift gill nets (DGN), and surface set nets. 

Bottom set-nets, hooks, and lines come in a variety of forms, too, for use by artisanal fishermen. 

Beyond the 50-meter depth range, the lagas and the DGN fleet are in operation. However, the 

legs are well-stocked with ice, food, and fishing equipment including fish finders and a 

Geographical Positioning System (GPS). 

About 70–80 percent of the total yearly volume of marine fish caught is produced by the 

artisanal fishing subsector, which mostly catches tiny pelagic fish species and some valuable 

demersal fish species (Mensah, 2012). Regardless of the degree of modernization, the statistics 

for nations with sizable commercial fisheries show that the rate of occupational deaths and 

injuries in the fishing industry is significantly higher than the national average (FAO, 2021). 

The industry's intrinsically hazardous working environment can be partly blamed for the high 

incidence of fatalities and injuries. These include a marine environment that is unpredictable 

and frequently hostile, unstable work platforms, mobile, variable, and diverse resources that 



23 
 

are frequently dangerous (due to bites, poison, and allergies), and are often found in remote 

offshore areas, as well as moveable and frequently heavy equipment and a reliance on ships for 

survival and shelter (Ben-Yami, 2021). 

Additionally, weariness, a prevalent element in many fishing-related events, can be brought on 

by shift work and the intense and prolonged working activity normally associated with fishing 

(ILO, 2019). Although fisheries are inherently dangerous, different fisheries and time periods 

exhibit different levels and types of safety culture and behaviour, highlighting the influence of 

social, economic, cultural, and regulatory elements on safety within the industry (Kwei & 

Ofori-Adu, 2015). 

 

Similar to this, the hazards involved in fishing from small boats tend to be different from those 

involved in fishing from large vessels, with the former being more susceptible to foundering 

and the latter occasionally being more susceptible to the risk of industrial-type mishaps, 

including getting stuck in machinery. The sorts of fishing activities, the location of operation, 

the state of the vessel, and the crew's expertise can all affect the risks (Windle, Neis, Bornstein, 

& Navarro 2015). 

As contrast to large mechanised fishing vessels, small-scale and artisanal fisheries have the 

poorest maritime safety safeguards, making them the most susceptible industries. The 

navigational, communicational, and safety capabilities of traditionally constructed fishing 

vessels are subpar (Chakravarty, Venkata, and Ganesh 2016). There will be minimal to no 

marine safety training for the personnel. Since the primary purpose of motorised fishing vessel 

is to organise remote water fishing, the introduction of motorization has proven useful for 

greater revenues while also increasing the risk involved (SIFFS 2018).  

 



24 
 

Additionally, there is every chance that the risk will rise as fishermen spend more time and 

travel farther out to sea than non-motorized vessels that just fish for a few hours close to shore. 

Although the fishermen may take certain precautions utilising their knowledge and expertise, 

the same conventional non-motorized craft is motorised and used for deep-water fishing 

without any checks on seaworthiness or other safety measures.  

The findings of Chakravarty et al. (2016), because the current marine fisheries management 

act does not specifically address this issue, there are no real sea safety measures for sea-going 

fishermen that have been enacted into law. A functional legal framework is a requirement for 

concerted measures for enhanced safety, which has been a long-standing key issue for a variety 

of institutions, national authorities, non-governmental organisations, and people.  

Several international organisations have already offered a blueprint for this type of regulation 

(Chakravarty et al. 2016). Studies (Rodrigues & Udaya, 2013; Ansuya et al., 2014) concluded 

that the understanding and practise of safety precautions in the fishing industry are insufficient. 

These studies emphasise the need to encourage fisherman to increase workplace safety and 

adopt a positive attitude towards the use of safety equipment. 

 

2.2.6 Causes of Occupational Injuries and Illnesses  

According to ILO projections, 2.2 million workers pass away from illnesses and injuries 

sustained at work each year. Three thousand five hundred (3500) of these fatalities are the 

consequence of accidents, and the remaining fatalities are brought on by illnesses and diseases 

contracted at work (Pearson, 2019). The literature has a variety of viewpoints on the reasons 

for workplace accidents, diseases, and injuries. According to Muchemedzi and Charamba 

(2016), accidents don't have a single cause but rather are the result of several factors working 

at once. According to them, an accident doesn't happen unless someone is exposed to a 



25 
 

potentially hazardous condition. Therefore, unsafe conditions, exposure, and human actions or 

practises are what lead to accidents. 

 

Referencing additional writers (Hymel et al., 2011; Girard et al., 2019; Choi et al., 2015; 

Crawford et al., 2018), it is suggested that impaired vision and hearing loss are the two main 

disorders linked to workplace injuries.  However, Cheng, Leu, Lin, and Fan (2010) believe that 

factors such as a lack of appreciation for the significance of safety precautions implemented in 

places of work, inadequate safety instruction for lately hired Employees and management's 

failure to appoint qualified safety and health staff to enforce workplace safety measures are 

elements that increase the risk of workplace accidents. They concluded that the two employees 

and management are conscious of possible risks and safety concerns based on a statistical 

analysis of 1,347 fatalities and accidents at work. 

 

The majority of workplace injuries, however, were determined to be caused by Incapacity of 

management to put necessary and suitable safety precautions in place to safeguard employees 

from possible risks in the workplace and harmful acts perpetrated by employees.  

Stress, which frequently arises from job pressures, is another significant factor in workplace 

accidents that result in injuries (Kodom-Wiredu, 2019). Burton (2010) believes that stress is a 

significant component in occupational injuries that result in fatalities and lost workdays. He 

bases his case on the Stress Institute of America and Trauma theory,  

Burton, (2010) draws the conclusion that tension at work, or stress brought on by other causes, 

impacts a person's performance at work, resulting in performance impairment and errors. 

Accidents caused by the error will result in harm or death. Johnson (2008) claims that disorders 

at work are more prevalent more than the total of all other non-fatal injuries and that the most 

frequent non-fatal injuries are caused by anxiety, stress, and neurotic illnesses. 



26 
 

Yamasue, Hayashi, Ohshige, Tochikubo, and Souma (2018) and Cifuentes et al. (2018) have 

also noted that employees in professions that frequently involve strict and erratic schedules, 

together with the accompanying heavy workloads are generally associated with high blood 

pressure, stress, and mental health disorders, and that a reduction employee mental health can 

be enhanced by overtime work hours (Hino, Inoue, Mafune & Hiro, 2019). An indicator that a 

comprehensive study on the causes of occupational injuries and illnesses has not been 

conducted throughout the world's formal and informal economies, at all employment levels is 

the variety of opinions voiced on the causes of workplace injuries. 

 

2.2.7 Measures to Improve Safety Behavior  

Theoretical and intervention OHS concerns various academics who have devised a variety of 

strategies for monitoring and enhancing occupational health and safety in the workplace. The 

ones created by Gustaven (2017) and Heinrich (2018) stand out among them. The three groups 

of enhancing OHS conditions are listed by Gustavsen (2016). The specification model, which 

refers to a situation where laws and regulations are central and various types of specialists serve 

as the primary actors, is the first of Gustavsen's categories. For example, OHS regulations are 

provided for all business owners and workers in the nation by the Ghanaian Labour Act (Act 

651).  

An employer's obligation to guarantee that every employee they hire works in comfortable, 

safe and healthy conditions is one of the laws in the Labour Act. Every employee has a 

responsibility to use the safety devices, firefighting gear, and personal protective equipment 

that the employer has provided by the employer's instructions. Additionally, all workplace 

illnesses and accidents must be reported by the employer to the relevant government agency as 

soon as reasonably possible and no later than seven days from the date of the incident. 

 



27 
 

In the same faith, Valentic et al (2015), explained that employers are to organize seminars, 

workshops and conferences abreast and equip employees with new and current information 

about the nature of the job they do. The following model is referred to as a "procedure-based 

model," and it is a mechanism for establishing corrective action and monitoring the work 

environment that has a remarkable similarity to contemporary quality control systems. The goal 

is to discover mistakes and rely on the regular line of business to fix them. The goal is to 

integrate health and safety into routine managerial decisions and activities.  

The Environmental Protection Agency's third strategy, which calls for a culture of continuous 

improvement, proposes a model for organizational development that places the idea of 

continuous improvement and maintaining compliance at its foundation.  

Applying health promotion strategies at work (particularly among craftsmen) is a crucial first 

step in creating a healthy workplace, especially in underdeveloped nations where such 

strategies are frequently underappreciated. Although there are laws and regulations requiring 

people to follow safety precautions in wealthy countries, the same cannot be stated for many 

developing nations (Kumar, Dharanipriya, & Kar, 2013). 

 

Nevertheless, artisan workers' understanding of workplace dangers and safety precautions is a 

significant health concern that requires attention, particularly in developing nations (Kumar et 

al., 2013). Injuries and illnesses at work can be prevented in large part by raising awareness of 

occupational safety and health (Manuel, Daphnie, D'cunha & Suresh 2015). All persons who 

are exposed should understand occupational exposure; nevertheless, many workers are 

unaware of potential risks at work, leaving them more susceptible to illnesses and injuries (Pui 

et al., 2017; Tam & Fung, 2008). 

 



28 
 

Due to research findings, there exist information gaps about potentially dangerous workplace 

exposures, and levels of awareness vary greatly depending on the occupation and the exposure 

(Pui et al., 2017). While other research showed otherwise, some indicated a high level of 

knowledge and awareness. Some workers in the informal economy frequently have a high level 

of awareness of occupational health risks. For instance, Budhathoki et al. (2014) discovered 

that welders had a high awareness of occupational dangers and the adoption of safety measures, 

with 90.7% of welders knowing about at least one welding hazard. 

 

Similarly, Kumar et al. (2013) hypothesised that craftspeople (mostly welders) are more aware 

of workplace dangers than safety precautions and practises. A study by Diwe et al. (2016) in 

South Eastern Nigeria likewise found that there was a high degree of awareness of occupational 

dangers among woodworkers, which they attributed to the respondents' levels of education and 

length of employment. 

In a similar vein, Tadesse et al. (2016) discovered that welders had a high awareness level 

(86.5%) of occupational dangers and their associated factors. Additionally, they concluded that 

the level of awareness was substantially correlated with work experience, the availability of 

clear work regulations, job happiness, marital status, and higher education. 

Similar to this, Awosan et al. (2017) noted that nearly all of the study participants had 

knowledge about OHS. Their results were consistent with those by Pui et al. (2017), who found 

that study participants were aware of and concerned about their exposure to diesel exhaust but 

had a limited and occasionally inaccurate understanding of the pathways of exposure, the health 

effects, and practical methods to reduce that exposure. 

In a study on awareness of risks in the laundry department of a hospital in Karnataka, India, 

Manuel et al. (2015:42) discovered that 53.3% of respondents were aware of the falls that could 

happen as a result of their profession, 93.3% were aware of hearing issues, and 20% displayed 



29 
 

awareness of headaches. When it came to chemical dangers, 93.3% of them were aware that 

latex allergy was a risk, while 26.6% highlighted dermatitis and 13.3% knew that respiratory 

issues were an occupational risk associated with their line of work. 

 

Despite the high levels of knowledge discovered in certain studies, other studies have indicated 

that workers had low levels of awareness and knowledge. Isah and Okojie (2016), for instance, 

discovered that welders in Nigeria had less knowledge and awareness than welders in the other 

research they analysed. Welders in Pakistan frequently lack awareness of the health risks and 

safety dangers related to their line of work, according to Hassan, Nasir, Anwar, and Talib 

(2018). According to the survey, up to 45.7% of the respondents claimed that working as a 

welder posed no significant health risks. 

The study by Budhathoki et al. (2014), there is a discrepancy between the use of PPE at work 

(47%) and awareness of workplace dangers (90%). In terms of socio-demographic traits, 

Budhathoki et al. (2014) discovered a correlation between education level and awareness of 

dangers among Nepalese welders, indicating that awareness rises with more education. The 

conclusion of Tadesse et al. (2016), which suggests a significantly positive relationship 

between work experience and awareness of workplace hazards, does not support their finding 

that the number of years spent as an artisan was negatively associated with awareness of 

hazards. 

Marital status and educational attainment were similarly observed by Tadesse et al. (2016) to 

be substantially correlated with occupational hazard awareness. Among Indian sand and stone 

miners, awareness of job dangers was correlated with age (Ahmad, 2017). According to 

Onowhakpor, Abusu, Adebayo, Esene, and Okojie's (2017) findings, knowledge of 

occupational hazards rises with age among Nigerian sawmill workers who responded to their 

survey. The differences in the study populations, definitions of hazard awareness, data 



30 
 

collection techniques, workplace conditions, and the times the studies were conducted are some 

of the plausible explanations for the discrepancies between the findings of the various studies. 

 

In order to reduce exposure to workplace accidents and health issues, PPE use and acceptance 

are extremely important (Johnson & Motilewa, 2016). PPE uptake and use have been the 

subject of numerous researches. Some of these data showed low PPE usage, while others 

showed high PPE usage. For instance, just 15.6% of respondents in an Izudi, Ninsiima, and 

Alege (2017) study in Uganda reported using personal protective equipment. 

Similarly, Johnson and Motilewa (2016) noted a low level of utilisation in Nigeria. They 

discovered that PPE was used by 27.8% of the respondents, with dungarees being the most 

often worn PPE (78.8%). Marahatta, Gautam, Paudel, and Yadav (2018) conducted research in 

Nepal on the knowledge of occupational hazards and related factors among car mechanics in 

the Kathmandu Metropolitan City. It was discovered that 44.3% of craftspeople used PPE. 

Budhathoki et al. (2014) evaluated the awareness of occupational dangers and the application 

of safety measures among craftspeople and found comparable results in Nepal. Eye goggles 

(60.9%), hand gloves (50.3%), and boots (34.5%) were the most often worn protective gear by 

responders (34.2%), followed by boots.   

 

Low levels of personal protective equipment (PPE) use were observed among welders, spray 

painters, and metal workers in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania (Rongo, Barten, Msamanga, Heederik 

& Dolmans, 2004). In Port Harcourt, Fiebai and Awoyesuku (2011) also found that 15.3% of 

welders wore safety glasses. Similar findings were found in a research conducted in Al Khobar, 

Saudi Arabia (Taha, 2010). Johnson and Motilewa (2016) discovered that just 27.1% of auto 

technicians in Nigeria used PPE.   

 



31 
 

In a comparable manner, Ihekaire and Oji (2017) discovered that only 2% of respondents 

reported using eyeglasses consistently, 14% reported using it frequently, and 41% reported 

using it occasionally. Less than a third (27%) of the craftspeople surveyed in Asante Mampong, 

Ghana, were found to be using personal protective equipment (PPE), according to research by 

Monney et al. (2014). In addition, a comparable survey that was conducted in Kumasi to 

evaluate perceptions of occupational chemical dangers, safety practises, and their enforcement 

revealed that just 0.7% of respondents said they always used the proper PPE during the spray-

painting procedure. 

Similarly, Abraham, Megbelayi, and Akpan (2015) discovered that 95 of the subjects in Nigeria 

(or 95.0%) did not use any type of eye protection while at work.  However, several studies 

revealed a high level of PPE usage. As an illustration, Amani, Bahadoram, and Hazrati (2017) 

found that 86% of welders wore safety eyewear. In India, the majority (95.7%) of the welders 

who were surveyed used at least one preventive measure in the week before, according to 

Kumar et al.'s (2013) research. In a study by Megbele, Lam, and Sadhra (2012) on the risks of 

cataracts in Nigerian metal arc welders, it was discovered that 60% of the workers wore eye 

protection. Adei, Braimah, and Mensah (2019) also discovered that few fishmongers in the 

Subin Sub-Metro used PPE. 

 

 

2.3 Theoretical Review 

2.3.1: The Theory of Domino  

The "domino theory," which Heinrich developed in 1941, is another method for boosting health 

and safety that has generated a lot of interest since its debut. According to Herbert William 

Heinrich's view, various events and circumstances lead to an injury. He likens this chain of 

occurrences to a row of dominoes falling (a tiny rectangular box used in the domino game). In 



32 
 

the sense that when one falls, the others do too. Heinrich claims that these five "metaphorical" 

dominoes represent the factors that contribute to workplace accidents. 

Social environment and ancestry, personal error, unsafe behaviour or physical hazard (unsafe 

situation), accident, and injury are the dominoes in chronological order. Each of these 

"dominoes" is carefully defined by Heinrich, who also offers suggestions on how to reduce or 

get rid of them from the sequence altogether. He clarifies that the first and second dominoes 

relate to the personality of the employee.  

 

While the first domino is characterized by negative personality traits like stubbornness, 

selfishness, and recklessness, the second domino is marked by inherited or acquired character 

faults including a short fuse, insensitivity, and ignorance. The 3rd domino, an unsafe deed or a 

dangerous circumstance, relates to Heinrich's primary reason for the occurrences. These 

elements, according to Heinrich, include things like sudden machinery starts and the absence 

of rail guards. Heinrich claims that the fourth domino was an accident.  

According to Heinrich, an accident is when an avoidable injury occurs. The 5th domino in this 

chain includes situations where people fall or are struck by flying items and usually sustain 

injuries. Injury is the final domino in Heinrich's safety chain for the workplace. Heinrich 

indicated that wounds and fractured bones are a few forms of accident-related ailments. 

Heinrich underlined that managers and employers must make sure that workplace safety 

regulations are followed to promote workplace safety.  

 

Among the five main events of the domino theory, Heinrich recognised the third domino, 

unsafe working circumstances or harmful behaviour, as a key contributor to occupational 

injuries. Heinrich looked studied a wide range of workplace accidents and discovered that 88% 

of them were brought on by dangerous behaviour and only 10% by unsafe conditions. Vincoli 



33 
 

and Bird modified Heinrich's domino theory in 1994, and Bird and Germain updated it again 

in 1985. According to Sabet, Aadal, Jamshidi, and Rad (2013), Bird and Germain updated the 

"Domino theory" to emphasise the role of management in the Heinrich-described chain of 

accident causes. 

 

2.4: Empirical Review 

Mputhia et al. (2018) looked at the compliance of micro and small businesses in the industrial 

sector of Nairobi, Kenya, with regard to awareness of environmental legislation. The 

Environmental Management and Coordination Act (EMCA) was known to a sizable number 

of micros, small, and medium-sized firms. There were different levels of awareness among 

diverse groups, including those producing rubber and plastic, tobacco, footwear, beverages, 

and leather goods. 

Although some SMEs were found to be conscious of environmental standards, it was 

discovered that those who weren't as well as those who couldn't comply with them were 

harmful to the environment. Manufacturing enterprises in the chemical and related sectors are 

not yet entirely covered by NEMA. Inadequacies in the exchange of knowledge about 

environmental legislation were found, making it difficult to fulfil environmental roles 

effectively. This suggests that organizations should be involved in spreading information about 

environmental regulating practices. This implies that organizations that spread knowledge 

about environmental regulations need to have enough resources to carry out their functions. 

To ensure occupational health and safety, Idirimanna and Jayawardena (2018) performed a 

study to examine the factors influencing the health and safety behaviours of fruit and vegetable 

processors. Idirimanna and Jayawardena (2018) once more emphasized that safety and health 

are cooperative efforts between employers and employees. Although the interests of the two 



34 
 

sides are different, they work together to make health and safety measures in businesses more 

successful and definite.  

It is undeniable that implementing health and safety procedures presents both companies and 

employees with several difficulties. The main sources of worry from both parties are the 

workplace's health and safety, the company's focus, as well as the way that workers respond to 

their safety, as well as the job requirements and descriptions. There are three levels of staff; the 

supervisory and clerical staff, the industrial staff and the executive staff and the influence of 

the executive staff means a lot in safety and health practices.  

 

The working environment has a variety of safety measures, and jobs that demand long hours 

of work ultimately have fewer employees contributing to assuring safety and health procedures. 

The much more frequent dangers in industrial organizations are ergonomic hazards. Because 

manual labour has been replaced by automation, workplace postures are uncomfortable. 

Poor working conditions of any kind have a significant impact on a worker's safety and health, 

according to a Danso (2015) study. Whether the workplace is indoors or outdoors, there are 

always going to be unhealthy or harmful working conditions. Poor working conditions of any 

kind have a significant impact on a worker's safety and health, according to a Danso (2015) 

study. Whether the workplace is indoors or outdoors, there are always going to be unhealthy 

or harmful working conditions.  

Occupational health and safety address a wide range of workplace problems, from accident 

prevention to threats including toxic gases, dust, noise, heat, stress, etc. Initiatives for 

occupational health and safety must put more of an emphasis on prevention than on resolving 

problems after they have already occurred. 

 



35 
 

Anaman and Osei Asamoah (2017) further assert that poor working conditions may have an 

effect on the environment in which workers reside because many workers' home and working 

environments are comparable. This indicates that occupational risks can negatively affect 

workers, their families, and other members of the community in addition to the immediate 

physical environment around the business. One well-known example is the use of heavy 

machines for construction operations.  

 

When applying and clearing bitumen, workers can be exposed to dust and chemicals in a variety 

of ways. They can breathe in the chemicals while spraying and afterwards, they can absorb the 

chemicals through their skin, and they can ingest the chemicals if they eat, drink, or smoke 

without first washing their hands or if they drink water that has become contaminated with the 

chemical substances.  

Additionally, according to Kheni (2018), families of workers may be exposed in a number of 

ways, including through contact with residues that may be on the workers' clothing. The same 

exposure methods can also be used to expose other members of the community. Overall, 

occupational health and safety initiatives should focus on preventing industrial accidents and 

illnesses while also acknowledging the link between employee health and safety, the 

workplace, and the surrounding environment. 

 

2.5: Limitations and Gaps in the Literature 

Mputhia et al. (2018) investigated the awareness of environmental legislation among micro and 

small firms in Nairobi, Kenya's industrial sector. However, the study's findings are limited in 

their generalizability as they focus solely on a specific region and smaller businesses. The study 

does not explore the level of awareness and compliance among medium-sized firms, leaving a 

gap in understanding the behaviour of this category. Additionally, while the study highlights 



36 
 

inadequacies in the exchange of knowledge about environmental legislation, it does not delve 

into the specific reasons or barriers for this lack of knowledge sharing, limiting the 

understanding of underlying factors. Furthermore, the study does not provide a clear 

understanding of the magnitude of the harm caused by firms lacking awareness or compliance 

with environmental standards, hindering a comprehensive assessment of the environmental 

impact (Mputhia et al., 2018). 

 

Also, Idirimanna and Jayawardena (2018) focus on examining the factors influencing the health 

and safety behaviours of fruit and vegetable processors. However, the study's applicability is 

limited as it narrows its scope to a specific industry, potentially overlooking variations in health 

and safety challenges across different sectors. While the study emphasizes the importance of 

cooperation between employers and employees, it lacks specific insights into the factors that 

influence these behaviours, leaving a gap in understanding the determinants affecting health 

and safety practices. Furthermore, the study briefly mentions the influence of executive staff 

on safety and health practices without exploring this aspect further, missing an opportunity to 

provide a comprehensive understanding of the role and impact of executive staff in shaping 

safety culture within organizations (Idirimanna & Jayawardena, 2018). 

Danso (2015) presents a study that highlights the significant impact of poor working conditions 

on worker safety and health. However, the study's shortcomings are clear because there aren't 

enough specifics or the right citations, which makes it difficult to assess the validity and 

dependability of the results. The study also does not provide an in-depth discussion on the 

specific types of poor working conditions and their implications, leaving a gap in understanding 

the factors contributing to negative outcomes. The absence of information on the study's scope, 

methodology, and sample characteristics further limits the assessment of its limitations and 

potential biases (Danso, 2015). 



37 
 

Anaman and Osei Asamoah (2017) assert that unfavourable working conditions may have an 

impact on both the environment surrounding the workplace and the well-being of workers, their 

families, and the community. However, the limitations of the study are evident as it lacks 

specific details and proper citations, making it difficult to assess the reliability and validity of 

the findings. The study's focus on the example of large machinery in construction work narrows 

its perspective, as it does not thoroughly examine other potential occupational risks and their 

effects on the environment and individuals. This limitation restricts the comprehensiveness of 

the analysis (Anaman & Osei Asamoah, 2017). 

Kheni (2018) notes the potential exposure of workers' families and the community to residues 

and chemicals present in the workplace. However, the limitations of the study arise from the 

lack of specific details and proper citations, which hinder the evaluation of the reliability and 

validity of the findings. The study briefly mentions the extent of exposure but does not provide 

a comprehensive discussion, leaving a gap in understanding the potential risks and necessary 

interventions (Kheni, 2018). 

These limitations highlight the need for further research that addresses the gaps in knowledge 

and provides a more comprehensive understanding of the relationships between environmental 

compliance, health and safety behaviours, and their impact on workers, workplaces, and the 

surrounding environment. 

 

2.6 Summary of the Review of Related Literature 

 The literature reviews highlighted issues that border on issues relating to the study under 

review. One theory was considered in the literature for this study and that was the theory of 

domino. Several studies have been conducted about the area of the study. It is reviewed these 

studies several scholars have tried to investigate occupational hazards, safety culture and 



38 
 

behaviour. The related literature has enabled me to accomplish the current status of the study 

by giving me more knowledge about the study.  

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

  



39 
 

CHAPTER 3 

    METHODOLOGY 

3.1 Research Methods and Design 

This study's primary objective was to look into the safety practises, work environment risks, 

and behaviour of fisherman in Ghana's Accra Metropolitan Assembly. The phrase "research 

design" describes the process by which a researcher constructs a research study to address a 

number of research topics. In his work, Wills (2003) asserts that research design functions as a 

systematic strategy defining the study, the researchers' techniques of data collection, specifics 

on how the study would reach its results, and the research's limits. The strategy aids researchers 

in gathering and utilising data to provide the needed knowledge. 

 

The quantitative method is used in the investigation. As a result, the study makes use of a 

descriptive survey, namely a cross-sectional survey in which respondents' ideas and opinions 

were sampled. The purpose of the survey design is to gather accurate and pertinent information 

about the status of phenomena. In other words, the researcher first does quantitative research, 

examines the findings, and then builds on the findings to quantitatively research to further 

explain them. The quantitative information provides a broad knowledge of the issue. 

 

3.2 Study Area 

The study area encompasses the Accra Metropolitan Assembly, situated within the larger 

region of Greater Accra. This urban setting, characterized by its bustling cityscape and 

proximity to the coast, holds particular relevance to fishermen. It serves as a hub for various 

fishing communities and activities due to its coastal location along the Gulf of Guinea. The 

Accra Metropolitan Assembly's maritime connection has led to a significant presence of 

fishermen who rely on its waters for their livelihoods, making it a critical focal point for 



40 
 

examining the challenges and dynamics of the fishing industry in this region. The town of 

James Town, which is under the jurisdiction of the busy Accra Metropolitan Assembly (AMA), 

one of the many Metropolitan, Municipal, and District Assemblies (MMDAs) in Ghana, offers 

a distinctive viewpoint on Occupational Health (OH). The fishermen who have lived in James 

Town since its establishment in 1898 face unique OH problems in the middle of the region's 

urban dynamics and demographic shifts. Their line of work, which is firmly anchored in the 

fishing sector, exposes them to a variety of risks. These devoted fisherman struggle with 

physical strain, long hours at sea, erratic weather patterns, and the dangers associated with 

managing fishing gear. In the constantly changing Accra Metropolis, this study aims to explore 

the occupational health concerns of these fishermen, acknowledging  

 

3.3 Data Collection Techniques and Tools 

A letter of introduction was obtained from the Department of Community Health and submitted 

to the Chairman of Jamestown Fishing Association, which sought approval from the Assembly. 

The letter described the purpose of the study and described the researcher. Oral consent was 

obtained from the respondents by explaining the process of the study carefully in the language 

the respondents understand and are conversant with. Respondents were made aware that they 

had the choice to opt out of the study or decline an answer to a question if they found it 

uncomfortable.  

The instrument used for this study was a questionnaire. This study used a questionnaire because 

the researcher may approach more readily and it can be finished at the respondent's 

convenience, it promised a greater coverage. A questionnaire is less expensive as compared to 

the other methods. The close-ended questions were used to design the questionnaires. The 

close-ended questions will have four Likert scale responses (SA, A, D, SD) depicting strongly 

agree, agree, disagree and strongly disagree. However, for less bulkiness and easy reading of 



41 
 

the table, the researcher combined the results for strongly agree and agree to agree, also merged 

strongly disagree and disagree to disagree and maintained the results for neutral. It is worth 

knowing that the merging does not affect the results in any way since they have an equal 

impression as the former. 

A through E made up the five main components of the questionnaire. As the subsequent 

sections sought information on the precise goals of the study, Section A sought information on 

the demographics of the respondents. Though the questionnaire did not give room for other 

methods when it was employed and it did not offer motivation to respondents.  

3.4 Study Population 

Artisanal fisherman in the Accra Metropolitan Assembly's James Town fishing village make 

up the study's population. There were 400 registered canoe fishermen in James Town, 

according to the Ghana National Council for Canoe fisherman (2022), who obtained their 

information from the Marine Canoe Register of the Accra Metropolitan Assembly. 400 

fishermen made up the study's whole population. 

 

3.5 Study Variables 

The study variables in this study included independent and dependent variables. The dependent 

variable was occupational hazards; safety culture as the independent variable in this study was 

behaviour among fishermen, which included factors that contribute to fishing accidents at 

fishing sites, types of hazards fishermen experience at fishing sites, nature of injuries fishermen 

experience at the fishing site and measures to improve safety behaviour of fishermen in the 

fishing industry. 

 

3.6 Sampling 



42 
 

The participant selection process for this study utilized a specific sampling technique. Initially, 

the Fishermen Association was chosen as the target population. To ensure equitable 

representation of this population, a simple random sampling technique was implemented. By 

using a table of random numbers, potential bias was minimized, and every member of the 

association had an equal opportunity to be included in the sample. This approach was chosen 

due to the considerable size of the association's population. The objective was to obtain a subset 

of participants that would accurately mirror the characteristics and experiences of the entire 

population. 

Due to the large population size of the association, the simple random technique was used to 

select the samples for the study.  

The sample size for this was 200 respondents. In determining the sample, the Yamen (1967) 

formula was adopted 

𝒏 =
𝑵

𝟏 + 𝑵𝒆𝟐
 

Where n= sample size, N=population size e= error margin, 

𝒏 =
400

1 + 400(0.05) 2
 

n= 200 

 

3.7 Pre-testing 

The pretesting phase of the data collection was conducted at Jamestown, using a sample size 

of 10% (n=20) of the intended participants (N=200). Based on the insights gained from the 

pilot study, revisions were made to the questionnaires, specifically incorporating the fishing 

experience of the fishermen and the hazards they encountered. The findings derived from the 

pretest played a crucial role in enhancing the validity of the data collection tools and ensuring 



43 
 

the reliability of the research outcomes. It is important to note that the pretesting was conducted 

on a separate sample, distinct from the participants involved in the main study. 

 

3.8 Data Handling 

Data (hard copies) were securely kept in a locked filing cabinet. Soft copies were stored on a 

pen drive that was securely protected with a password. All data were kept confidential for 5 

years after which will be destroyed. 

 

 

3.9 Data Analysis 

The study considered descriptive analysis, specifically, measures of central tendencies, thus, 

mean, and standard deviation. The study used a computer program known as SPSS version 25, 

which is software for research analysis. 

 

3.10 Ethical Consideration 

Ethical approval for this study was sought from the Ensign Global College Research Ethical 

Committee. Permission was obtained from the Jamestown Fishermen Association. In addition, 

the researcher ensured all the following ethical guidelines in conducting research are duly 

followed:  

 

3.11 Assumptions 

In this study, it was assumed that the participants would be completely honest in their 

responses, allowing for an accurate assessment of the study's goals, and that the respondents 

would not be biased. The researcher made the supposition that he had no influence over the 



44 
 

respondents' answers. The sample population being sufficiently representative of the overall 

population in the research area was another presumption. 

 

  



45 
 

 

CHAPTER 4 

4.0 RESULTS 

 

4.1 Demographic Characteristics of the Respondents  

The study's fourth chapter includes the findings and analyses from the study region in 

accordance with the stated goals. The study specifically aims to: investigate the nature of 

human resource outsourcing strategies in the study area, evaluate the operational performance 

of the banking industries, identify outsourcing challenges faced by various Banks, and examine 

the impact of human resource outsourcing strategies on the organisational performance of the 

banking industries. All 200 sampled respondents who were given the questionnaire replied.  

 

Table 1: Demographic Characteristics of the Respondents 

Demographics Frequency Percent 

Age N=200  

30-35 2 1.0 

36-40 109 54.5 

41-45 39 19.5 

46+ 50 25.0 

Education   

Junior High School 91 45.5 

No formal education 21 10.5 

Primary 83 41.5 



46 
 

Senior High School 5 2.5 

 

Years of Fishing Experience   

1-5 0 0.0 

6-10 113 56.5 

10+ 87 43.5 

 

Smoking Status   

Yes 183 91.5 

No 17 8.3 

Alcohol Status   

Yes 198 99.0 

No 2 1.0 

Source: Field data (2023) 

 

The results presented indicate that the majority of the respondents are within the ages of 36-40 

which constitute 54.5% and the minority were those within 30-35 years which represented just 

1.0%. Also, the results revealed that most of the respondents were JHS leavers representing 

45.5%; however, just 2.5% were SHS leavers representing the minority. similarly, the results 

show that the majority of the fishermen have worked in the fishing business for 6 to 10 years 

whilst the minority have been with the fishing business for above 10 years. similarly, the results 

show that the majority of the respondents do smoke which represents 91.5% however, just 

8.5% do not smoke. it was again revealed that majority of the respondents do drink alcohol 

which constitutes 99.0% however, just 1.0% do not drink alcohol. 

 



47 
 

4.2 Nature of Injuries Fishermen Experience 

Fishermen can sustain various types of injuries due to the nature of their work.  

 

Table 2: Nature of Injuries Fishermen Experience 

Variables A N D 

 F % F % F % 

Drowning 200 100.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 

Cuts and lacerations 198 99.0 0 0.0 2 1.0 

Stings from fish spines 192 96.0 0 0.0 8 4.0 

Foreign objects in the eye 27 13.5 0 0.0 173 86.5 

Slips and falls 196 98.0 3 1.5 1 0.5 

Bruises 194 97.0 5 2.5 1 0.5 

Puncture wound 195 97.0 5 2.5 0 0.0 

Source: Field data (2023) 

Based on the results provided, it appears that the fishermen had a diverse level of opinions on 

different aspects of the nature of injuries experienced by them.  

In regard, the results revealed that all (100.0%) of the respondents strongly agree or agree that 

drowning is a major injury. Cuts and lacerations (99.0%) , Slips and falls (98.0%) and injuries 

from contact with fish appendages such as spines, and stings (96.0%) were among the major 

injuries sustained by fishermen. 

 

4.3 Reasons that Contribute to Accidents at Fishing Sites 

Several reasons can lead to accidents at fishing sites. These reasons are presented in the Table 

below. The Table indicates that from the several factors that contribute to accidents at the 

fishing sites, on average, the majority of the fishermen strongly agree or agree that believing 



48 
 

in supernatural protection (invincible from accidents), being a victim of some 

curse/spell/witchcraft, and professional pride which constitutes 99.5%, 98.5, and 97.5% 

respectively. 

 

 

Table 3: Reasons that Contribute to Accidents at Fishing Sites 

Variables A N D 

 F % F % F % 

Tiredness/fatigue and reduced alertness 78 39.0 1 0.5 121 60.5 

Overload of your boat or canoe (too much catch) 40 20.0 0 0.0 118 80.0 

Inadequate training, orientation, and supervision 13 6.5 1 0.5 186 93.0 

Believe in supernatural protection (invincible 

from accidents) 

199 99.5 0 0.0 0 0.0 

Unsafe or defective equipment and facilities 162 81.0 2 1.0 36 18.0 

Professional pride (underestimated situation) 195 97.5 0 0.0 1 0.5 

Lack of skill and knowledge in fishing 21 10.5 0 0.0 179 89.5 

Operational procedures (work and production schedule) 21 10.5 0 0.0 179 89.5 

Ignorance (lack of awareness of hazards involved) 33 16.5 1 0.5 166 82.5 

Loss of concentration 118 59.0 1 0.5 81 40.0 

Lack of right protective equipment and gear 195 97.5 0 0.0 5 2.5 

Being a victim of some curse/spell/witchcraft 198 98.5 0 0.0 2 1.0 

A bad day 166 83.5 0 0.0 33 16.5 

Source: Field data (2023) 

 

The Table indicates that from the several factors that contribute to accidents at the fishing sites, 

on average, the majority of the fishermen strongly agree or agree that believing in supernatural 

protection (invincible from accidents), being a victim of some curse/spell/witchcraft, and 

professional pride which constitutes 99.5%, 98.5, and 97.5% respectively. 



49 
 

 

4.4 Types of Hazards Fishermen Experience 

Fishermen are exposed to various hazards while carrying out their activities.  

Table 4: Type